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Three of the following are reasons seeding effects are hard to detect. Which is the odd one out?

  • A.no counterfactual exists for any given individual cloud
  • B.precipitation gauges are inherently unreliable
  • C.natural rainfall variability is large
  • D.the expected effect is a small percentage

Answer: B

Gauges are adequate for the purpose; the difficulty lies in the comparison rather than the measurement. The other three are the genuine obstacles. Measurement is adequate; comparison is what fails. The missing counterfactual is the central obstacle.

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