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How is risk aversion represented in a utility framework?

  • A.By a utility function that is concave in the quantity of interest
  • B.By reducing every probability estimate towards one half
  • C.By adding a penalty term to the expected utility calculation
  • D.By refusing any action whose outcome is not certain

Answer: A

A concave utility means that each additional unit of money or reward is worth less than the last, so a certain amount is preferred to a gamble of the same expected value. That is how risk attitude enters without abandoning expected utility maximisation. Distorting probabilities, adding penalties and refusing uncertainty are ad hoc alternatives that lack the axiomatic justification. Absorbing an apparent departure from the theory into the shape of the utility function keeps the framework intact.

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