Discussion
Which orographic effect produces vertical motion directly?
Answer: D
The lower boundary condition gives a vertical velocity equal to the horizontal wind dotted with the gradient of the terrain height, so a 10 metre per second wind crossing a slope of 1 in 100 produces 10 centimetres per second of forced ascent. That is an order of magnitude larger than typical synoptic vertical motion, which is why orographic enhancement of rainfall is so pronounced. Thermal upslope winds are a separate diurnal effect. The shared properties explain why these belong to one family, and the differences explain why more than one exists.
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