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Which quantity does the surface pressure tendency equation involve?

  • A.The vertical velocity at the top
  • B.The rate at which the temperature of the whole column is changing under the influence of radiation
  • C.The vertically integrated divergence
  • D.The horizontal advection of pressure by the geostrophic wind at the level of the surface itself

Answer: C

The tendency of surface pressure equals minus the integral of the horizontal mass divergence through the whole column, which is why it is so hard to compute accurately. The integral is a small residual between large convergence at low levels and large divergence aloft, so small errors in either dominate the answer. This is precisely the difficulty that wrecked Richardson's first attempt at numerical forecasting. A single measurement chosen to respond to the one asymmetry beats several that respond to shared behaviour.

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