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Which measurement gives the horizontal temperature gradient without any radiosonde ascent?

  • A.Satellite radiance retrievals
  • B.Surface station reports, from which the temperature at every level above may be extrapolated reliably
  • C.Aircraft wind reports
  • D.Rainfall observations, which indicate where the ascent associated with a thermal gradient is occurring

Answer: A

Satellite sounders retrieve temperature profiles over the whole globe, including the oceans where radiosondes are scarce, and those profiles give the horizontal gradient and hence the thermal wind. This transformed analysis over the southern hemisphere from the nineteen seventies onward. Surface reports cannot be extrapolated upward, aircraft winds give the shear rather than the gradient, and rainfall is at best an indirect indicator of vertical motion.

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